The Distance Between Hand and Tongue: On Plagiarism

Of all the clamor and noise, so much they said and did not do

                         Lord, what a distance there is between hand and tongue

 Lately in Iran, the topic of plagiarism and ways to combat it within the realm of knowledge and academia has gained some momentum; although there is still no seasoned expert in the matter of judging and identifying literary works (from any source, be it student theses, books, articles, etc.) that are in some way plagiarized. While internationally there are anti-plagiarism websites (such as Plagiarism.org) that highlight strict ethical, legal, and literary rules and strive, as far as possible, to combat plagiarism, in Iran neither are the boundaries of plagiarism clear, nor have precise definitions on the subject been offered at all. The boundaries of academic citation, research methodology, and so on, all primarily and inherently stem from ethical issues, with their scientific aspects being of secondary consideration; and it is for this reason that if ethical boundaries are not clear, the boundary of academic and literary theft will also not be clear. As it is today, the tactic of literary thieves, by resorting to this very pretext, is to compare their own work with the works of renowned predecessors, assuming that if those great figures, in the matter of research, intentionally or inadvertently, did not state their documentation and references precisely and completely, then now they too are entitled to take the path of negligence and laxity in referencing and citation. Whereas the reprehensibility of this act will never be diminished by such rationalizations, and today even those great figures are subject to this criticism; as an example, one can point to Ali-Ashraf Sadeghi's critique of the Dehkhoda Dictionary, which examined and criticized the lack of transparency in citations within the dictionary (Sadeghi, 2009, 29-31). Now, if clearer definitions of literary and artistic plagiarism and its boundaries were provided, it could assist readers of such works and open new horizons before them, enabling them to judge books and articles with a critical eye. In this regard, the newly published book "Iranian Music in Sayeh's Poetry" (Mehdi Firouzian, Honar-e Musiqi Publications, 2017) will be examined and compared with the thesis "Musical Terms in Sayeh's Siyah-Mashq" (Matin Kakhsaz, registered in the official system of the Ministry of Science, Irandoc, dated 2012). To clarify the matter, first, the definition of literary theft or plagiarism in various sources will be presented, and then the content, method, and documentation found in the aforementioned book will be elaborated in detail.

1-Definition of Literary Theft or Plagiarism: "The act of stealing and passing off the ideas or words of another as one's own; the use of another's produced work without crediting the source" (Webster, 1987, 898). In more specialized dictionaries, for example, the Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms states that an idea can include the plot and plan of a story, and it is emphasized that in plagiarism, a part of a work (and not all of it) can be stolen (BALDICK, 2001, 194). According to the definition of plagiarism, not only is taking a part of a work considered plagiarism, but stealing the phrase, words, structure, plot, plan, and even the idea of another author is considered plagiarism; of course, all of these cases are contingent upon the use of any of the said items without citing the original work and passing off what belongs to another as one's own.

2-Citation, a way to escape the suspicion of plagiarism: It is obvious that in writing a scientific or literary book or article, the author makes use of sources. According to the scientific method of research, this citation must be precise and transparent; that is, if the author uses someone else's idea or phrase, they must definitely refer to its source in order to at least remain safe from the accusation of plagiarism, and this is the least benefit of citing: "Mentioning the correct source and citing guarantees that you have prevented the risk of unintentional plagiarism" (Jesson and others, 2011, 146). Hariri and Shahbodaghi, in the section on sources used in the formation of a work, enumerate the uses of citation, quoting Garfield, as follows: "1- Giving credibility to the authored work, 2- A manifestation of the author's trustworthiness, 3- Observing the intellectual property rights of creators and owners of thought, 4- Tracing the trajectory and evolution of an idea over time" (Hariri and Shahbodaghi, 1386, 18). The fourth item mentioned deems a monumental topic essential in research and book writing, and that is the background of the subject or the historical context, to which many researchers such as Oppenheim and Ren have also paid attention (ibid., 17). The background of the research and acknowledging the writing of a specific book or work is, of course, one of the obvious principles of scientific methodology that exists in all sciences (and not only the humanities) and is a requirement of methodical research (Geoffrey and Others, 2005, 42). Whenever the research background (literature reviews) is used in any form in writing a book, including the idea and whatever has influenced your work (Influence), and the research background is not mentioned, according to the APA standard, which is commonly used worldwide for studies and literature, plagiarism has occurred (APA, 169-170). The same applies to other standards such as MLA (MLA handbook, 55).

3-Citing according to international writing methods (for example, Chicago and MLA) must necessarily appear in the "Bibliography" section and footnotes. Note that "Reference" has a precise difference from Bibliography: "References are the sections that you have read yourself and specifically referred to (or cited). Bibliography is a list of everything you have read in preparing the writing. Therefore, typically, the bibliography includes the sources you have cited and those items you have considered influential but have not cited in the text. The bibliography can include the brief opinion of a simple teacher who has influenced your idea and argument, even if you have not referred to those ideas"

(Nevill, 2010, 18) (This is only if the idea or influence was conveyed to the author verbally; an idea and being influenced by a written text is at an even higher level of citation). So, there is a difference between reference and bibliography. The author may have been influenced by several sources and books but has only referred to a number of them in the text of their work, and these referred cases are considered their references; but the bibliography includes all the cases by which the author was influenced or which they somehow used in writing the work, even if they were not cited in the text of the work. It should be noted that the unit of utilizing sources is "influence" on the author of the work. That is, even if a source created an idea in the author or even contains an error that the author corrects in their work, it must be mentioned in the bibliography. In general, there are two types of sources in citation: one is Cited Reference, meaning the sources that have been cited in the text, and the other is Uncited Reference, which refers to sources that are not directly mentioned in the text; but both types of sources must be listed in the bibliography.

4- According to the Law for the Protection of the Rights of Authors, Composers, and Artists (enacted 1348), Article Two, the works protected by this law include "books, treatises, pamphlets, plays, and any other scientific, technical, literary, and artistic writing" and possess material and moral rights (Azarang, 1375, 224 and 225). By this definition, theses registered in the system of the Ministry of Science (Iran Doc) are in fact "Documents" and have legal value, and using and benefiting from them carries legal implications.

Matin Kakhsaz's thesis, titled “Musical Terms in Sayeh’s Siah-Mashq,” was registered in the IranDoc system in 2012. In this glossary, the musical terms in the poetry collection Siah-Mashq by H. A. Sayeh (Houshang Ebtehaj) are first extracted statistically and by frequency, and in the next stage, these terms are arranged alphabetically. Then, each term is explained based on old and new books on music, and alongside each explanation, the source from which it was quoted is given precisely, with the page number. Also, alongside each term, the number of lines from Siah-Mashq in which the term is used is given with the page number, and finally, a few couplets from the book Siah-Mashq that contain the term as a tanāsob (proportional metaphor) or īhām-e tanāsob (ambiguity of proportion) are cited.

The book “Persian Music in Sayeh’s Poetry” (Mehdi Firouzian), published in 2017, is, by the author’s own admission, a frequency glossary of musical words (Firouzian, 2017, 33) that lists each word with a musical charge alphabetically in an entry and has written a meaning for each word or term without referencing any specific book or source for these meanings and definitions. Then, for each word or term, examples from Ebtehaj’s poetry are cited from the poetry collections Siah-Mashq, Tāsiyān, Bāng-e Ney, and a few scattered poems, and the author has listed the sources used in the text at the end of the book under the title “Bibliography.”

The number of entries and terms in Firouzian’s book, excluding compound words, is 67 entries, and the number of entries in Kakhsaz’s thesis is 90 entries, and about 60 entries in Firouzian’s book are exactly the same entries that Kakhsaz included in his thesis; likewise, the examples from the book Siah-Mashq in Firouzian’s book are the same examples seen in Kakhsaz’s thesis. Only the addresses of the couplets in the poetic examples in Kakhsaz’s thesis correspond to the Siah-Mashq published by “Kārnāmeh” Publications, and in Firouzian’s book, the addresses are based on the Siah-Mashq published by “Amin Dezh” Publications. (As mentioned, in Firouzian’s book, examples from the poetry collections Tāsiyān and Bāng-e Ney and scattered poems are also given, but wherever an example from Siah-Mashq is cited, it is the same poetic examples found in Kakhsaz’s thesis.) Purely as a sample, a few examples of the content of these two writings are compared randomly:

Kakhsaz: “Bāl-e kabutar (213, 321) A plectrum movement in a performance that usually traverses the first degree (tonic) to the fourth interval of the mode without pause. 2- A specific cadence in the mode... Shab dast-e siyāh-e khish bar sar mizad / Az dur kasi bāl-e kabutar mizad (Siah-Mashq: 321)” (Thesis, 19-20).

Firouzian: “A special cadence at the end of an instrumental piece performance, mostly played by leaping from the first degree to the fourth interval of the mode. Shab dast-e siyāh-e khish bar sar mizad / Az dur kasi bāl-e kabutar mizad (Siah-Mashq: p. 286)” (Persian Music in Sayeh’s Poetry, 45).

The similarity between the two texts needs no explanation, except that in Kakhsaz’s writing, forud-e makhsus (a specific cadence) is used, and in Firouzian’s writing, forud-e vizhe (a special cadence).

Kakhsaz: “Rāk (155). A section of the Māhur and Rāst-Panjgāh modes, including Rāk, Rāk-e Hendi, Rāk-e Kashmir, Rāk-e Abdollāh, Naghme-ye Rāk, Safir-e Rāk... Del-e hazinam az in nāle-ye nahofte gereft / Biyā ke vaqt-e safiri ze pardeh rāk ast (Siah-Mashq, 192)” (Thesis, 50).

Firouzian: “A section of the Māhur and Rāst-Panjgāh modes, having gusheh-s such as Rāk-e Kashmir, Rāk-e Abdollāh, Rāk-e Hendi, and Safir-e Rāk. Del-e hazinam az in nāle-ye nahofte gereft / Biyā ke vaqt-e safiri ze pardeh-ye rāk ast (Siah-Mashq, p. 234)” (Persian Music in Sayeh’s Poetry, 77-78).

The word “shāmel” (including) in Kakhsaz’s text is “dārā-ye” (having) in Firouzian’s text, and in the rest of the sentence, only the order of mentioning the terms is different; for example, Kakhsaz first mentions Rāk-e Hendi, and Firouzian mentions Rāk-e Hendi second to last.

Kakhsaz: "'Ushshaq (167, 94, 84) has passed through the twelve musical modes... In today's music, 'Ushshaq is one of the main and important gushehs of the dastgahs of Rast-Panjgah, Nava, Homayun, and the Avaz of Dashti. 'Ushshaq is mentioned in the radif of Musi Khan in the Avaz of Isfahan (Isfahan is also related to Homayun)... My poem is more sorrowful than the lament of the lovers ('ushshaq) / Woe to that plectrum that again took the path of injustice (Siah Mashq, 94)" (Thesis, 70).

Firuzian: "'Ushshaq: one of the twelve modes of ancient Iranian music; one of the main gushehs of the dastgahs of Rast-Panjgah, Nava, Homayun, and the Avazes of Dashti and Isfahan in the dastgahi music radif" (Iranian Music in Sayeh's Poetry, 101). This needs no explanation, except that Firuzian here cites the verse on this page from the book Bang-e Ney, but elsewhere in his book, under the entry 'Ushshaq, he cites the same verse from Siah Mashq mentioned by Kakhsaz (ibid., 201).

Or even compare these two passages in terms of wording, order, and sequence of words and sentences:

Compare this passage by Firuzian: "The most prominent example is the following couplet, which is entirely constructed from one-sided and two-sided musical amphibology (iham-e tanasob), and dad in it is compatible with naleh, 'ushshaq, gham-angiz, zakhmah, rah-e bidad, and gereft" (Firuzian, 1396, 196) with this sentence by Kakhsaz: "[In Sayeh's couplet] if we know that there is a congruity (tanasob) between the words naleh, 'ushshaq, gham-angiz, dad, zakhmah, rah, bidad, and gereft... the aesthetic appreciation of the poetry multiplies several times over" (Kakhsaz, 1391, 7). Bear in mind that the equivalent of the Arabic word tanasob (in Kakhsaz's text) in Persian is sazgari (in Firuzian's text). Count the remaining identical content—around sixty entries with identical definitions and examples—as being of the same kind and nature.

In this detail, the idea and method of the work: entirely and a part of the content of Firuzian's book (published in 1396) is the same idea, method, and content as in Kakhsaz's thesis (registered in the IranDoc system in 1391). Can it be coincidental that a single idea with an identical method and even overlap in a major part of the content was researched, one in 1391 and the other in 1396?

The necessity of research background and historical context was mentioned earlier (and that too regarding works that claim to be the first of their kind, or even examples of dictionaries, such as Lisan al-Arab, 7th century, which presents the background of the work at the beginning (Ibn Manzur, 1414, 1/10 onward). Its necessity, according to international standards, has many other scientific and ethical reasons that are beyond the scope of this article (see: Driscoll, 2013).

But apart from this obvious research issue, an examination of several instances in Firuzian's book reveals that he had both seen and was aware of the research background, and had also benefited from it.

Firouzian relates at the beginning of his book: “I recall the day when one of the students of Persian language and literature brought his thesis, which was on the poetry of Sayeh, to him. Sayeh was astonished upon seeing that student’s interpretations of his words, and deemed many of his interpretations baseless, born of his imagination, or an obvious error. Fortunately, the author, aided by the poet’s guidance, has remained free of such shortcomings and errors” (Firouzian, 1396, 27). First, it must be emphasized that every sentence a language user employs carries presuppositions that are latent and have no overt appearance in language and speech (Chapman, 1384, 126-130). Likewise, in the pragmatics of language, there are two terms: “presupposition” and “entailment.” In defining “presupposition,” it must be said that it is what the speaker assumes to be true before uttering their sentence: for example, in the sentence “I sold this house on Tuesday”; the most basic presupposition is that, firstly, a house existed and a buyer also existed, or, for instance, because the word house is used with the demonstrative adjective this, the intended meaning is a specific, known, and definite house and not just any house. “Entailment” is the logical conclusion derived from the utterance of a sentence, about which the speaker cannot claim a different meaning; that is, logically, that sentence carries a specific entailment (Yule, 1395, 41).

With these definitions, Firouzian’s presuppositions and entailments in the quoted passage would be as follows:

1- A thesis on musical terminology in Sayeh’s poetry existed. (It is worth noting that the only thesis registered with this topic in the IranDoc system is Matin Kakhsaz’s thesis. If a thesis on this topic had been registered before Kakhsaz, he would not have been able to register the topic in IranDoc, and if, after the registration of this thesis, another person also intended to undertake a thesis on this topic, it would not have been possible due to duplication).

2- Firouzian was aware of the existence of this thesis.

3- The thesis Firouzian referred to was about the musical terminology of Sayeh’s poetry and not, for example, the rhyme and refrain or meters of Sayeh’s poetry, because he states: “the author (Firouzian himself), aided by the poet’s guidance, has remained free of such shortcomings and errors” (Firouzian, 1396, 27). Thus, it is entirely clear that the thesis was of the same type and nature as Firouzian’s work, from whose such (i.e., known and specific) errors and shortcomings he remained safe by availing himself of the guidance of the poet himself.

4- Firouzian must have studied the thesis in order to become aware of the existing instances of “error” within it and to remain free of them.

At the beginning of the present article, it was explained that there are two types of citation in a research text, the sources for both of which are included in the Bibliography; whether they have been used directly in the text or whether their idea, thought, or content has been utilized. This matter is certainly not hidden from an academic such as Dr. Firouzian, who is himself a faculty member, and he is also certainly aware of the difference between “References” or “Works Cited” and a “Bibliography.” So how is it that in the bibliography of his work, he makes no mention whatsoever of the thesis he saw on this subject, studied, and, by his own account, was able to avoid its errors?

Summary: By this account, a vast portion of the content is identical, as are the idea and the method of work, and, according to the quotation above, there was awareness of the background of the subject and a sample of the work.

It should be mentioned that, according to Firouzian’s claim in an interview with the Book News Agency, the second edition of the book has also been prepared by the publisher.

A Methodological Note on Firouzian’s book: As Firouzian acknowledges, he has undertaken the compilation of a dictionary of musical terms; it is clear that the method of compiling a dictionary of terms differs from that of a lexicon, in terms of lexicography. In a dictionary of terms (in this case, a dictionary of Iranian music), quotations and opinions vary, and this very fact necessitates that the narrator and transmitter of a musical term be specified precisely and in detail; even Mehdi Setayeshgar, despite holding his own views on Iranian music, in his book “Nām-nāmeh-ye Mūsīqī-ye Īrān-zamīn” (The Book of Names of the Music of the Land of Iran) has been a transmitter and narrator of the theories of earlier musicologists, and for each entry, after citing various opinions, he has stated the source of each with page numbers within the text. Unlike Firouzian, who has undertaken compilation and has relegated his sources to the end of the book; for example, in Firouzian’s book, regarding the Delkash gusheh, it is stated: “a gusheh in the Dastgah of Mahur” (Firouzian, 1396, 198), whereas Setayeshgar, quoting others, has written under Delkash: “in some radifs, it is recorded as following Shekasteh or Fili in Tork [the Avaz of Bayat-e Tork]” (Setayeshgar, 1374, 454 & 455); that is, Firouzian has engaged in ijtihad regarding musical terms and holds a preferred opinion. The extent to which Firouzian is an authority on the music of the land of Iran and the understanding of gushehs, etc., is not the subject of this article, and we will suffice with mentioning this point alone; however, the burden of scientific ethics in this matter is that: to be more precise, it is unclear, for instance, on which book in his bibliography this opinion of Firouzian is based, and what exactly is the criterion for this selection and opinion?

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References:

Azarang, Abdolhossein 1375, An Introduction to Printing and Publishing.

Sadeghi, Ali Ashraf 1388, Lexicography (Special Issue of the Academy Letter), Vol. 2, No. 2, 2-39.

Hariri, Abbas and Shahbodaghi, Azam 1385, Citation Methods in Scientific Writings: International Guidelines.

Firouzian, Mehdi 1396, The Music of Iran in the Poetry of Sayeh, Honar-e Musiqi Publications.

Kakhsaz, Matin 1391, Musical Terms in Sayeh’s Siah-Mashq, Master’s thesis, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran. Registered in the Iran Doc system. https://ganj-old.irandoc.ac.ir/articles/588176

Setayeshgar, Mehdi, Dictionary of the Music of the Land of Iran.

Chapman, Siobhan 1384, From Philosophy to Linguistics, translated by Hossein Safi.

Yule, George 1395, Pragmatics, translated by Mohammad Amoozadeh and Manouchehr Tavangar.

Ibn Manzur, Lisan al-Arab 1414 AH.

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English References:

BALDICK,CHRIS,The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms.

Driscol, Dana Lynn 2013: //owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/666/01/.

Geoffrey Marczyk and Others 2005,Essentials of Research Design and Methodology.

JessonandOthers 2011, Doing Your Literature Review.

MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers,2009.

Nevill 2010, The complete guide to referencing and avoiding plagiarism.

Publication Manual of theAmerican PsychologicalAssociation,2010.

www.Plagiarism.org.

Webster, Merriam 1987, ninth new collegiate dictionary.

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The Distance Between Hand and Tongue

On Plagiarism

Author: Mahtab Salimlu

[email protected]

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