Is Every Individual Responsible for All of Humanity?

Fundamentally, existentialism is not easy to define! This term is a common name given to very different philosophies, and one should not assume that these philosophies are necessarily closely related. Their commonality lies more in the fact that they are all “philosophies of life”; in all of them, an attempt is made, in various ways, to answer the questions that people ask about human existence and experience. Most authors of history-of-philosophy books, when faced with the difficulty of providing a precise and comprehensive definition of existentialism, have tried to resolve this issue to some extent by listing themes related to existence such as the primacy of existence, choice, freedom, death, loneliness, and absurdity. In such a situation, an existentialist philosopher is one who has devoted their works to addressing these themes.

While the term “being”[1] is generally used for entities, existentialist philosophers scrutinize human being as a distinct kind of being from the being of other entities, and with attention to this distinction, they call human being “existence.” For example, the difference between the value of a horse’s being and a human’s being for an existentialist philosopher is that, at least as far as we know, a horse’s consciousness pertains solely to external objects, whereas the scope of human consciousness includes the self as well. In other words, humans possess self-consciousness.

It is also worth noting that there is a subtle difference between the existential tradition[2] and the formal school[3] of existentialism; when a thinker addresses existential issues such as life and death, they are in fact philosophizing within the existential tradition, and since every great thinker usually addresses existential issues like life and death at some point in their work and life, it is clear that no definite beginning or end can be set for this tradition. However, the philosophical school of existentialism has a clear and definite beginning.[4]

It is said that in 1834, a young Dane, while absorbed in his thoughts, wrote the following in his daily notes[5]:

The benefactors of the world take steps to serve humanity by making life easier. Each in turn, one by discovering railways, another through buses and steamships and the telegraph, yet another with books and voluminous treatises and brief reports on everything worth knowing, and finally, the true benefactors of the world are those who, thoughtfully and methodically, set about making spiritual life easier and easier.

In another note, he writes[6]:

You too must do something; but because of your limited capacities, you cannot set about making anything easier. Therefore, you must, with the same humanitarian enthusiasm as others, set about making something harder, harder than it is.

The young Dane imagined that in such circumstances, he must, like a Socrates of his time, go in search of hardships and difficulties.[7] The search for these difficulties was made possible through the exploration of the inner self and existence; that is, he had to begin philosophy from within[8]: he would consider his own situation in existence and confront existential concerns such as discovering the meaning of life, freedom, responsibility, anxiety, death, and loneliness.[9]

This young Dane was none other than Søren Kierkegaard, the philosopher and founder of the school of existentialism. In 1835, in a letter to his friend Wilhelm Lund, he wrote his first existential text. In this text, he describes the truth that is practical for him:[10]

“What I really need is to be certain about what I ought to do, not what I ought to know, except insofar as knowledge must precede every action. The issue is to understand my destiny and see what God really wants me to do; the most important task is to find a truth that is truth for me, to seek the idea for which I am willing to live and die.”

In the passage above, Kierkegaard considers the central problem of his life to be finding a truth for the sake of which he would be willing to live and die. This point is the heart of the existentialist school.

Generally, when speaking about the philosophical school of existentialism, one must specify whether Christian existentialism or atheistic existentialism is meant. Among the best-known Christian existentialists are Søren Kierkegaard, Gabriel Marcel, and Karl Jaspers. Likewise, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre are among the most famous philosophers of the second branch of existentialism. The common ground between these two groups is summed up in the central and crucial principle of existentialism, namely “existence precedes essence.” In other words, in their view, philosophy must begin with subjectivism[11], which I will explain further on.

Before explaining this principle, it should be noted that since there are at least two general classifications for existentialist philosophers, and when comparing the philosophers placed in each of these categories, clear differences in outlook are visible, this piece, on the occasion of Jean-Paul Sartre’s birthday, will refer to the existentialism presented by him in his book Existentialism Is a Humanism.

Jean-Paul Sartre (born June 21, 1905, died April 15, 1980), in his book “Existentialism Is a Humanism,” sets out the main characteristics of the existentialist school. He believes that the first principle of existentialism is the concept of “existence precedes essence”;[12] “existence precedes essence” means that man first exists, becomes aware of his existence, emerges into the world, and then defines himself and, through choice, constructs his essence and offers a definition of himself. [13] In other words, after coming into existence (the primacy of existence), man, in the course of life, constructs his essence through his actions. In fact, for Sartre, man is a being who exists before he can be defined by any concept. More precisely, man is at first nothing, meaning he cannot be defined in advance or have a concept presented of him; rather, man is the concept that he presents of himself after coming into existence.

The above concept also conveys the meaning of subjectivism[14] intended by existentialism.[15] In Sartre’s philosophy, subjectivism means that “man is nothing other than what he makes of himself”[16]; this self-construction pertains solely to the human being, that is, to the inner world of man.[17] Sartre says in this regard: “Man is, before all else, that which he has projected[18] himself to become, not what he would like to become”; meaning man is like a project that is always striving to be ahead of himself, and nothing exists prior to this project. Or, in other words, man is always poised for a leap and for self-surpassing, and this movement and passion is a conscious drive, not something automatic or born of determinism.[19]

Also implicit in the concept of the first principle of existentialism is the possibility of free choice for man. That is, man can, with will and freedom, shape his own essence, which encompasses his thought and personality. In other words, this school of thought believes that man can, on his own and without any help, advance toward an ideal future. Sartre believed that “freedom lies at the heart of all human experience, and it is freedom that distinguishes man from all other kinds of beings.”[20]

Now, if we accept that existence precedes essence and that human beings possess free will and the right to choose, then humanity will be responsible for itself. In other words, since existentialism places humanity as the owner and master of what it is, it therefore situates the full responsibility for its existence upon itself; for if there were no free will and freedom of choice, responsibility would be meaningless. Responsibility has various meanings and applications. This term has diverse financial, moral, civic, and familial dimensions. Or, for example, we usually consider trustworthy and ethical individuals to be responsible people. But the meaning Sartre intends by this term is none of the meanings mentioned. He uses "responsibility" in a specific sense. Being responsible, according to Jean-Paul Sartre, means being "the incontestable author of an event or of an object."[21] That is, we possess the awareness that our destiny, the comforts and troubles of life, our feelings, joys, and sufferings are the result of our own decisions and choices.[22] In other words, it is we ourselves who are the creators and shapers of all these experiences throughout our lives.

It should also be noted that when existentialism says that humanity is responsible for its own existence, it does not mean that the individual is responsible for their own particular individuality, but rather that every individual is responsible for all of humanity.[23] Because by choosing anything and performing any action, a person is automatically creating the humanity that they want it to be. In other words, they are constructing an image of humanity that, in their opinion, humanity in general ought to be like that. For example, at this very moment that I am writing, there are many children in another corner of this city who are hungry. According to Sartre, even I am responsible for these children. If I object that, for example, I was not aware of such a thing, or even if I were aware, I could not do anything to change the existing situation, he would reply: It is I who have chosen to remain uninformed, or instead of involving myself in this situation and taking steps to resolve such a problem, I have chosen at this particular moment only to write.[24]

In fact, according to the school of existentialism, what I make of myself is a model and exemplar for all of humanity. In this regard, Sartre holds humanity responsible before others not only in political, social, and cultural arenas but even in personal matters. For example, he says that when we marry and have children, although according to common belief this marriage pertains to my person, based on the school of existentialism, by doing this I have not only committed myself to choosing a spouse and having children, but I have also bound all of humanity to choosing a spouse and having children, and I indicate to them that this act is the right thing to do. Therefore, humanity will be responsible for all of humanity, and in every choice and every action, one must be mindful of one's thoughts and behavior.[25]

Moreover, existentialism explicitly declares that man is anguish. In fact, when a person realizes and commits himself to the fact that he is not only what determines his own essence and his own way of life, but is also a lawgiver who, by choosing his own self, chooses human society (including all of humanity) as well, such an individual will not be able to escape the feeling of his total and profound responsibility[26], and this feeling of responsibility will create anguish for him. Sartre gives a very good example in this regard, which, incidentally, is also very applicable to our society! He says that many people in their daily lives commit numerous offenses against civil laws and citizenship rights, yet they do not experience any existentialist anguish. The interesting point is that if, after committing a transgression, they are asked what would happen if everyone committed such a transgression? They shrug indifferently and say: "Not everyone does that!". From Sartre's perspective, such people are in conflict with their own conscience. In truth, by lying and saying "Not everyone does that," they are merely making an excuse for themselves. According to the school of existentialism, one must always ask oneself: what would happen if everyone committed such a transgression?!

Now, considering that according to the existentialist view, existence precedes essence, there is no concept of man prior to his existence, and therefore belief in a good or bad innate nature or disposition for man is meaningless. Thus, man will never be able to justify matters and affairs by resorting to his innate nature and disposition. Consequently, there is no point of support for man within himself, and he cannot find an excuse or pretext for his actions. On the other hand, if, according to the view of Sartre and the second type of existentialism, there is no Necessary Being[27], man will also find no support outside himself. In other words, outside of man, there will be no Necessary Being that has defined values or issued commands to legitimize man's actions. Therefore, man seeks neither a point of support and a means of excuse within himself, nor outside. Sartre, borrowing from Heidegger, calls this concept "abandonment"; in fact, in his view, man is abandoned. That is, it is ultimately man who must decide and choose regarding each of life's affairs and the issues he faces. If he finds himself at moral crossroads, it is he who must choose and bear the responsibility for the consequences of his choice.

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[1] being

[2] tradition

[3] school

[4] See: Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, trans. Sepideh Habib, p. 32, Ney Publishing, 2011, Tehran.

[5] See:

193. Kierkegaard, “How Johannes Climacus Became an Author”, In A Keirkegaard Anthology, ed. R. Bretall, Princton, N. J.: Princton University Press, 1946, p. 193.

[6] See: ibid.

[7] See:

21. Barrett, What is Existantialism?, New York: Grove Press, 1954, p. 21.

[8] See: Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Mostafa Rahimi, pp. 30, Niloufar Publications, Fourteenth Edition, Winter 2013, Tehran.

[9] See: Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, trans. Sepideh Habib, p. 33, Ney Publishing, 2011, Tehran.

[10]  See: John D. Caputo, How to Read Kierkegaard, trans. Saleh Najafi, p. 21, Rokhdad-e No Publications, 2009, Tehran.

[11]  See: Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Mostafa Rahimi, p. 30, Niloufar Publications, 14th printing, Winter 2013, Tehran.

[12]  It should be noted that the concept of "existence precedes essence" within the existentialist school of thought is entirely different from the use of such a concept in Islamic philosophy, and the use of this term should not cause confusion or misunderstanding. In existentialist philosophy, "to exist" means to partake of a specifically human existence, and the concept of "essence" is nothing other than realizing oneself through the free choice of possibilities before one.

[13] See: Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Mostafa Rahimi, p. 23, Niloufar Publications, 14th printing, Winter 2013, Tehran.

[14] Subjectivism

[15]  See: Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Mostafa Rahimi, pp. 28-29, Niloufar Publications, 14th printing, Winter 2013, Tehran.

[16]  See: Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Mostafa Rahimi, p. 24, Niloufar Publications, 14th printing, Winter 2013, Tehran.

[17]  See: Ibid., footnote p. 29.

[18] Project

[19] See: Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Mostafa Rahimi, pp. 24-25, Niloufar Publications, 14th printing, Winter 2013, Tehran.

[20] See: Sarah Bakewell, At the Existentialist Café, trans. Houshmand Dehghan, p. 20, Payam-e Emrooz Publications, Autumn 2016, Tehran.

[21] J. Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. Hazel Barnes, New York: Philosophical Library, 1956, p. 633.

[22] On this subject, see: Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, trans. Sepideh Habib, p. 312, Ney Publishing, 2011, Tehran.

[23]  See: Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Mostafa Rahimi, p. 31, Niloufar Publications, 14th printing, Winter 2013, Tehran.

[24] J. Russel, “Sartre, Therapy, and Expanding the concept of Responsibility”, American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 1978, 38: 259-69.

[25]  For further explanation, see: Ibid., footnote p. 32.

[26]  See: Ibid., p. 34.

[27] Sartre says of the Necessary Being: Existentialism is not an atheist philosophy in the sense that it exhausts itself in demonstrations of the non-existence of the Necessary Being; rather, it declares in the proper sense that even if the Necessary Being existed, nothing would be changed; this is our philosophy and our conviction. See: Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism, trans. Mostafa Rahimi, p. 78, Niloufar Publications, Fourteenth Printing, Winter 2013, Tehran.

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Every Individual Is Responsible for All of Humanity!?

A Brief Reflection on the Concept of Existentialism on the Occasion of Jean-Paul Sartre's Birthday

Author: Mohammadreza Vaez Shahrestani

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