اندیشهفلسفهخردگفتگوحکمتمعناپرسشفرهنگ
Philosophy
The Myth of Sisyphus and the Meaning of Life, Farshad Aliyari
The myth of Sisyphus, a symbol of futile labor and revolt, is analyzed by Camus through the concepts of absurdity and freedom; in contrast, Islamic thinkers find meaning in life through elements such as the remembrance of God and love. An examination of Eastern and Western perspectives on the meaning of life.
One of the important topics discussed in the philosophy of religion is the meaning of life, which thinkers and philosophers have debated. Many thinkers have used the myth of Sisyphus as a pretext to express their philosophical interpretations of human life, the surrounding world, and existence. Questions arise in this connection: Is Sisyphus's life meaningful or meaningless? If it is meaningful, why, and what is the criterion and standard? And if it is meaningless, why? What elements should have been present in Sisyphus's life that, had they been there, would have made it meaningful? Can Sisyphus overcome this meaninglessness? How and by what means? From without or from within, or from neither? Should he change the outer world or the inner world, or change both? Since the discussion of meaning is multifaceted, the author intends, to the best of his ability, to present various Eastern and Western perspectives, including those of Albert Camus and others, and to scrutinize the discussion of the meaningfulness and meaninglessness of life, in such a way that Albert Camus, in the myth of Sisyphus, seeks to prove that an absurd world cannot and should not drive man to foolish acts; in fact, this thought can engender a serious movement within him, a movement in search of meaning. Islamic thinkers such as Saadi, Hafez, Sohrab Sepehri, and others have proposed components such as the remembrance of God, gratitude, unconditional love, contentment, trust in God, and so on, which can make life meaningful.
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Introduction:
Sisyphus, son of Aeolus (Aiolos) and Enarete, and also the husband of Merope, was the founder and king of the kingdom of Ephyra. Furthermore, he is referred to as the most cunning of men because he revealed the plans of the gods, when he informed Asopus, the river god, that the abduction of his daughter was his doing. For this reason, Zeus decided to punish him and sent Thanatos (Death) to him. But Sisyphus overcame him and bound Thanatos hand and foot with strong chains, shattering the power of death. Then the mighty god of war (Ares) rescued Death from Sisyphus's clutches, and thereafter Thanatos was able to resume his duties. Finally, Sisyphus was taken to the world of shades by the god of war. But before Ares could carry out his task in this matter, Sisyphus forbade his wife from making sacrifices after his death. Then the cunning Sisyphus deceived the god of the underworld (Hades) and falsely claimed that he wanted to return to the world for a short time to instruct his wife to make sacrifices for him after his death. When Sisyphus set foot in his home again, he contentedly enjoyed life with his wife and mocked the god Hades; at that very moment, Thanatos suddenly appeared before him and forcibly took him to the world of the dead. Sisyphus revealed the secrets of the gods. Sisyphus was condemned by the Greek gods to roll a large, round stone to the top of a mountain. Each time, the stone rolls back down the slope on the other side of the peak, and this task is repeated over and over again. In this article, the views of Western thinkers, especially Albert Camus, and a number of thinkers from Islamic Iran are described and analyzed, and concepts such as absurdity, suicide, revolt, and freedom are examined; then, ultimately, the correct view will be presented.
A Different Look at the Story of Sisyphus
As we know, the myth of Sisyphus is a symbol of futile labor and rebellion, and thinkers and intellectuals have expressed various opinions in this regard, seeking in a way to analyze humanity and the universe, and questions have always preoccupied their minds. One of these questions is: Is life meaningful or meaningless?
Is life worth living?
The difference in perspectives and theories lies in the angle from which they view the human being and issues pertaining to the human being; the difference in these angles is like the difference in views from several different windows onto a single subject called the human being. The author believes that religion without society and society without religion has no meaning or concept. Every human being has a metaphysical perspective upon which they base their life, and within that framework they carry out all social, cultural, religious, economic, political, etc., matters.
Albert Camus:
Camus uses this myth as a pretext to express his philosophical understanding of human life, the world around him, and existence. Camus states that I have seen many people die because life was not worth living for them, and from this I conclude that the question of life is the most urgent question of all times. (Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, p. 583)
To do this, he sets out to examine the most key words in his thought:
1) Absurdity 2) Suicide 3) Revolt 4) Freedom
Absurdity:
Camus considers suicide to be the only truly serious philosophical problem. And this is when an individual finds all their daily efforts meaningless and believes that life is not worth living. Such an individual sees no clear path in their life and considers the foundation of their life to be built on absurd walls. In this connection, Camus states that suicide is nothing but the negation of one's own lucidity, because by negating it we can also not see the absurd, negate it. This solution, which is sufficient for thought, is not sufficient for real life, because in this life, the logic of the "absurd" dictates that I must kill myself. If I kill myself, I destroy the consciousness that is the support of the vision of the absurd. Schopenhauer, in this connection, states: "Nothing is worth our effort, striving, and struggle... all good things are vain and futile; the world is entirely bankrupt and resembles a business that does not cover its costs." Camus states that absurdity is a rebellion against the world, and at the end of the book, he clarifies his relationship with the world: "I leave Sisyphus at the foot of the mountain! His heavy burden is always within reach." (Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, p. 665)
Camus believes that absurdity exists neither in the human being nor in the world, and it is only through their joint presence that it becomes perceptible, and at present, it is the sole link between them. (Albert Camus, The Myth of Sisyphus, p. 46) Using the myth of Sisyphus as a pretext, Camus critiques modernism and modernity. Sisyphus is the epitome of modern man, who is caught in repetition and a tedious, machine-like life and can never achieve his desired outcome. He is trapped in the vortex of the restlessness and anxiety of the modern age, and no matter how much he struggles, he cannot save himself from this predicament. In this book, Albert Camus is influenced by philosophers such as Heidegger, Jaspers, Kierkegaard, Dostoevsky, and Schopenhauer, and in a way expresses their views and thoughts, a subject that indicates Camus's affinity, or in his own words, "kinship," with them, and in this context, he has no qualms about specifically showing his indebtedness to Nietzsche.
Just as Nietzsche has been called the philosopher of life, Camus also sees life as full of beauty and pleasure, and through effort and tenacity, he considers his own heaven and hell to lie in revolt and human commitment, and he praises life. During the World War, Albert Camus was an activist in the Resistance movement and is considered a full-fledged fighter.
The reasons for the emergence of nihilism in modern human history must be sought in subjectivism. The objectifying view of beings can perhaps be interpreted as a view of limitation and appropriation, and it is entirely compatible with the tangible results and the dominant positivistic approach of the modern age. Modern science becomes the arbiter of truth, and the objectivity of the object overcomes universal truth. For this essentially appears in the most manifest form possible with the pragmatic outlook and the rise of philosophies of praxis; philosophy and science are that which is useful and yields a practical result.
In his book, Camus poses the question: if life is meaningless, does the individual necessarily drift toward suicide? If life has no meaning, does that mean life is not worth living? Camus replies: if this is the case, we must either find a sudden faith, or commit suicide. Camus is interested in pursuing a third possibility: we can accept a world devoid of meaning or purpose and live in it. Camus claims that existentialist philosophers such as Kierkegaard and others confronted the paradox of the absurd but then tried to escape from it. The existentialists, who found no concept or order in existence, attempted to find some kind of superiority or meaning in this meaninglessness.
From the perspective of people who have reached the stage of the absurd, Sisyphus's life has the following characteristics:
1- Sisyphus's life is completely monotonous
2- It has no goal or purpose and is utterly meaningless
3- His work is like the day before; no creativity or change is seen in his life
4- Sisyphus never observes any progress in his life
5- Despair and hopelessness
Camus states that living with the absurd is confronting this fundamental contradiction and maintaining a constant awareness of it. Facing the absurd does not require suicide; on the contrary, it allows us to live life to the fullest. Camus articulates three characteristics of the absurd life. 1- Revolt (in our struggle we must accept no answer or compromise) 2- Freedom (we are absolutely free to think and behave as we choose) 3- Passion (we must pursue a life rich in diverse experiences) Camus gives four examples of the absurd life: 1- The Seducer (one who pursues the passion and excitement of the moment) 2- The Actor (one who compresses the passion and excitement of hundreds of lives into a single stage career) 3- The Conqueror or Rebel (one whose political struggle is directed by his energy) 4- The Artist (who creates entire worlds) Absurd art does not try to explain experience, it merely describes it; it introduces a specific worldview that deals with particular subjects rather than considering universal themes. Camus suffers from futility, and performing repetitive tasks is tedious for him. To show this suffering, he chooses the stone, but the stone Camus places on Sisyphus's shoulder is not identical to the burden of punishment Sisyphus received from the gods. In Camus's myth of Sisyphus, the gods and myths become tools for Camus to transform the stone into a self-made sign (self-discovered wisdom). This means a transition from the familiarity of indices (the stone as a symbol of the torment chosen by the gods) to the stone as a sign, because in this work Camus deals only with the pure state of a suffering subjectivity. In this exploration, he has not engaged with any ritual, belief, or metaphysics and has confined himself solely to examining the limits of capabilities. «Man is eternally condemned to the struggle between two opposing poles of agitation and anxiety on the one hand, and sorrow and boredom on the other» (Michael Frankel, Man's Search for Meaning, p. 160)
Realizing the absurdity of life is not the end of the road; it is a beginning for life. In the early years of his twenties, Camus tried to find an answer to the catastrophic problem within life itself. If we accept life, experience it in its entirety, and enjoy it in the present moment, we may not need any other justification. To avert the temptations of nihilism and suicide, is it not enough to live as much as possible? In The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus explains that neither the human being nor the world is absurd. Absurdity lies in the coexistence of the human and the world. We often look to the future with fear, worry, and anxiety, so much so that many times we have no hope for the future and feel alone, and fear and worry prevent us from enjoying the present moment and the now. We are all in pursuit of the fountain of fortune, and because we think this fountain lies in the future and fear we might not reach it, fear and anxiety seize our being and deprive us of the joy of life. We fear the passage of time, old age, death, poverty, and so on... and all these are misplaced fears, for no one but God knows what will happen in the future. As Sohrab Sepehri says, giving humanity hope for the future and telling us not to fear death: death is not the end of the dove; death is responsible for the beauty of a butterfly's wing, and sometimes, sitting in the shade, it watches us. And we all know that the lungs of pleasure are filled with the oxygen of death (Hasht Ketab, Sohrab Sepehri, p. 296)
Suicide:
Camus believes that the principal and only serious problem in philosophy is suicide. From his perspective, the world is absurd. And after arriving at the absurdity of the world and accepting it, a person reaches rebellion and revolt. For the absurd, like hatred, binds beings together, and understanding this absurdity, the nature of life, and its irrationality calls one to protest, not to submission and helplessness. Therefore, his absurdism does not end in passivity and the will to death. At the age of fifty, Tolstoy was greatly inclined toward suicide, to the extent that he states: "The question that brought me to the thought of suicide at fifty was the simplest question lying in the soul of every human being, from the immature child to the wisest sage. What is the result of what I do now and may undertake tomorrow? What is the result of my entire life? In other words, why should I live? Why should I desire anything? Why should I do anything? Or, to put it another way, is there any meaning in my life that will not be destroyed by the inevitable death awaiting me?" (Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, p. 583)
(Schopenhauer (1788-1860) believed that life is meaningless because the truth of the world is will and volition, though this will is both without cause and without purpose. In his view, life is entirely suffering, and the way to liberation from this suffering is to diminish the intensity of the will. He says the will always struggles, for striving is its sole nature, and no achieved goal can put an end to it; hence, such striving cannot attain final satisfaction but continues within itself forever. Pain is inherently inescapable and intrinsic to life; the ceaseless efforts to banish suffering do nothing more than change its form. The stronger the will, the greater the suffering. Therefore, the way to liberation from this suffering is to diminish the intensity of the will, not suicide... Suicide is not only not a denial of the will but is also a powerful affirmation of it, for the essential nature of denial lies in the fact that one avoids the pleasures of life, not its sorrows. (Journal of Comparative Theology, Year 1, Issue 1, Spring 2010, p. 99)
People who commit suicide find life meaningless; they undergo a crisis of meaning, are bewildered, do not know what to do. They constantly ask themselves why? what for? and often confess: I have been condemned to live in depression until death, a death in isolation and loneliness, a hard and dreadful death. What I want to confess is very difficult for me, and that is the announcement of my death. I died years ago, and now I confess it, and I must endure this death until physical death arrives. Such individuals lack purpose in life, possess no passion or enthusiasm; they fabricate their own selves, their world, and their situation, and conclude that there is no solution but suicide. In fact, they have founded their thoughts on absurdity, and these negative and irrational thoughts have so intimidated them that they see no clear path. They are shaken by the slightest grievance in life, and life no longer holds any importance for them. “He who thought life no longer had any meaning for him, no goal, no motive, no purpose, nothing tied him to life, and once he reached this point, his fate was sealed” (Viktor Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning, p. 226)
Hafez: Do not be aggrieved by the autumn wind in the meadow of the world / Think rationally; where is the thornless rose?
Revolt:
The solution Camus proposes is revolt. Revolt constantly compels human reason to struggle against the absurd; it is revolt that gives man his true dimension. Under the yoke of life, it binds us to a struggle that is perpetually renewed. The absurd does not disappear, but it continually retreats, and with each of its retreats, our life grows larger. And it is in this way that awareness and insight enter our daily actions.
For Camus, the absurd is not a concept that defeats man, but a concept to which a particular meaning can be given. He believes that although Sisyphus undertakes a futile task, something might happen in the process of rolling that round mass up and down that gives life meaning. Camus’s Sisyphus stands apart from destiny and fate, knows the stone better than any god, and is even aware of the endlessness of the path. He believes in thought, does not bow in submission before the spear, even though he knows this entails an endless effort.
Camus believes that Sisyphus engages with his environment, and this is like a protest and a revolt.
Camus’s man is not one who, upon perceiving the absurd, commits suicide; rather, he rises in rebellion and revolt in order to give meaning to his surroundings.
In The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus seeks to prove that the absurd world cannot and should not drive man to foolish acts; indeed, this thought can generate a serious movement within him, a movement in search of meaning. From Camus’s perspective, the absurd is the starting point, not the end. Through absurdist thought, a new range of social and individual outcomes emerges that is always in struggle against its own concept, unlike Kafka, who sees the absurd as the endpoint of everything. (Shargh newspaper, article “Giving Meaning to Meaninglessness,” issue 714, p. 20)
Abu al-Qasim al-Shabbi, one of the poets of Tunisia, contracted cancer in his youth and expresses his rebellious thoughts in the following verses:
I shall live, despite the disease and the enemies, / Like the eagle above the lofty peak. Despite pain, suffering, and the presence of enemies, I shall live like the eagle atop the high mountain peak.
I gaze at the shining sun, mocking / The clouds, the rains, and the storms. I stare at the radiant sun, while mocking the clouds, the rains, and the changes of weather. (I make sport of them.)
And I say to the fate that never relents from warring against my hopes with every affliction:
و به سرنوشتي كه از جنگ با آرزوهايم با تمام سختي و گرفتاري دست برنميدارد (تسليم نميشود)، ميگويم
The wave of sorrow and the tempests of calamities will not extinguish the blazing flame in my blood.
موج رنج و تند بادهاي مصيبتها در خون من زبانهي آتش افروخته را خاموش نميكند.
So destroy my heart as much as you can, for it will be like the solid rock.
تا ميتواني دلم را بشكن و نابود كن، زيرا آن همانند سنگ سخت خواهد بود.
And I live like the mighty one, gazing always at the dawn, the beautiful, distant dawn.
مانند شخص قدرتمند زندگي ميكنم و پيوسته به روشنايي بامداد، روشنايي زيبا و دور خيره مي شوم.
Light is in my heart and between my ribs, so why should I fear walking in the darkness?!
روشنايي در دل و سر تا پاي وجودم هست، پس براي چه از حركت در تاريكي بترسم.
I am the reed whose melodies never end as long as it is among the living! (Comparative Literature, Alireza Sheikhi, 116)
من آن ني هستم كه نغمه هايش تا وقتي كه در (ميان) زندگان است،پايان نمي يابد .
Freedom:
We are absolutely free to think and behave as we choose. Jean-Paul Sartre believes in this connection that man is in fact condemned to be free. In ethics, there is one fundamental law, and that is to choose oneself; this law is always obeyed. The existent (man) fundamentally desires one thing for himself, and that is being; although he is "nothingness-like" in his essence, he wants to be. Man wants to become God. In reality, man's affliction and suffering is, in one sense, the reverse of Christ's affliction; man must die so that God may live and exist. But the being of God is impossible; the "existent" is contradictory in itself-for-itself, and its search for being ultimately fails. Man is a useless passion and emotion. (Contemporary European Philosophy, written by Bochenski, translated by Dr. Sharaf al-Din Khorasani, p. 145)
Heidegger refers to man with a specific term, "Dasein," meaning man-in-the-world. Human existence is a degraded and fallen existence in the world. Man is thrown into the world without having agreed to it and is caught in such circumstances. This feeling of thrownness and being hurled is a kind of feeling of shelterlessness and darkness, a descent into the world for man. The situation of thrownness is accompanied by a feeling of abandonment to one's own fate, amidst beings that press upon us. Thus, being thrown into the world is not a finished fact without impact or reflection on our present state, but a fact that endures and is a permanent characteristic of the specific existence of man, in such a way that the possibility of the instability and eventfulness of my situation in the world is manifested before my eyes.
Heidegger believes in the discovery of the meaning of life, in such a way that man, in this abandonment among his possibilities, must create various meanings through new understandings, that is, the discovery of possibilities. In fact, "meaning" is everything that is articulated and expressed within understanding. The world is empty of meaning except for the presence of man in this world, which brings meaning into existence. (Heidegger's Philosophy, Maurice Corvez, translated by Dr. Mahmoud Navali, pp. 15 and 16)
Heidegger refers to man with a specific term, "Dasein," meaning man-in-the-world. Human existence is a degraded and fallen existence in the world. Man is thrown into the world without having agreed to it and is caught in such circumstances. This feeling of thrownness and being hurled is a kind of feeling of shelterlessness and darkness, a descent into the world for man. The situation of thrownness is accompanied by a feeling of abandonment to one's own fate, amidst beings that press upon us. Thus, being thrown into the world is not a finished fact without impact or reflection on our present state, but a fact that endures and is a permanent characteristic of the specific existence of man, in such a way that the possibility of the instability and eventfulness of my situation in the world is manifested before my eyes.
Heidegger believes in the discovery of the meaning of life, in such a way that man, in this abandonment among his possibilities, must create various meanings through new understandings, that is, the discovery of possibilities. In fact, "meaning" is everything that is articulated and expressed within understanding. The world is empty of meaning except for the presence of man in this world, which brings meaning into existence. (Heidegger's Philosophy, Maurice Corvez, translated by Dr. Mahmoud Navali, pp. 15 and 16)
Will
Epictetus, the Roman philosopher, believes that the will cannot be fettered; even Zeus does not have the power to do so. In this connection, he says:
(( I must die. I must be imprisoned. I must endure the suffering of exile. But must I die groaning? Must I lament? Can anyone prevent me from going into exile with a smile? The ruler threatens to put me in chains: What are you saying? Put me in chains? Yes, you can bind my leg, but not my will ... no, not even Zeus can accomplish such a thing. (Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, p. 384)
(( I must die. I must be imprisoned. I must endure the suffering of exile. But must I die groaning? Must I lament? Can anyone prevent me from going into exile with a smile? The ruler threatens to put me in chains: What are you saying? Put me in chains? Yes, you can bind my leg, but not my will ... no, not even Zeus can accomplish such a thing. (Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, p. 384)
Saadi:
The venerable master Saadi of Shiraz, in the third tale of the chapter on dervishes in Golestan, says:
“One of the great men was seized with a contrary wind in his stomach and could not restrain it, and it escaped him involuntarily. He said, ‘O friends, I had no choice in what I did, and no sin was recorded against me, and a relief came to my being; you too, in your generosity, pardon me.’”
In light of the above tale, Saadi believes that negative thoughts, satanic temptations, vain imaginings and fantasies, and in general the destructive mental-behavioral patterns that reside in our mind and thought must be expelled as soon as possible, for if we carry them with us, they may negatively affect our actions and behavior. The healthy or ideal human being, in Saadi’s view, is one who does not store complexes and negative mentalities within himself but casts them out, the reason being that they will suddenly erupt, influence a person’s behavior, and cause suffering to oneself and others, to the point where one is deprived of control over one’s actions and conduct. Saadi continues the tale by saying:
The stomach is a prison for wind, O wise one; no intelligent person keeps wind in bonds.
When wind twists in the stomach, release it, for wind in the stomach is a burden on the heart.
The reason Saadi likens negative mentalities and pathological patterns to stomach wind is that these pathological mental patterns are incompatible with human nature and innate disposition, are in a sense contrary to the prevailing principles of the universe, and always cause suffering and disturb human tranquility. Saadi believes that, without fear of others’ judgment, one must change and expel these erroneous thoughts and mental patterns and replace them with healthy mental patterns; it is in this state that a person attains inner peace. In a way, Saadi believes in the construction of meaning; that is, he considers the meaning of life to be subjective. A person who has reached nihilism and sees suicide as the only solution is a sick person, and in the view of Saadi and many other thinkers, the way out of this situation is to change one’s outlook and pathological mental-behavioral patterns. It should be noted, of course, that the meaning of life cannot be considered a human fabrication; rather, the meaning of life may well up from within each individual or be embedded in their being, and they can discover it within themselves through specific methods. (Religion and the Meaning of Life in Analytic Philosophy, Mohammad Reza Bayat, p. 90) The components of a meaningful life from Saadi’s perspective, in the forty-fifth tale of the third chapter of Golestan, are: 1- Remembrance of God 2- Gratitude 3- Unconditional and gratuitous love 4- Self-sacrifice and generosity 5- Contentment 6- Trust in God 7- Submission 8- Forbearance and acceptance From the viewpoint of Saadi and many thinkers, the aforementioned components make life purposeful, valuable, and significant, and in this case, life will not be devoid of meaning. If a person makes the best possible use of the God-like endowments latent in their innate nature, that person is a small god and a small universe. As a thinker has said, do not say I am inside the world; say the world is inside me. The treasure and capital lie within us humans, and we are heedless of this treasure. In the story The Alchemist by Paulo Coelho, the hero of the story discovers at the end that the treasure was with him, and for years he had looked to others for the treasure, wandering through other cities and countries. As the Tongue of the Unseen, Hafez of Shiraz, says: For years the heart sought the Cup of Jamshid from us, and what it itself possessed, it kept desiring from the stranger.
Sohrab Sepehri:
All human beings have a particular framework of beliefs and convictions according to which they interpret and analyze the universe, society, the mutual relations between the individual and society, and all human phenomena, and on the basis of which they engage in action and deed—that is, the foundation of every person’s behavior and speech is their beliefs. Sohrab Sepehri is no exception to this rule. The most important principle we observe in Sohrab’s poems is a return to nature and the principles of the universe. In other words, Sohrab considers the most ideal form of life to be a natural life, the life that God has established. A life in which fences are low and there is no conflict; two poplars never quarrel with each other; the willow does not sell its shade to others; in this society there is no ownership, whatever exists belongs to all—and of course not in the sense of Marxist or communist ideas. He believes that life and death in the cycle of nature are entirely correct and proper, but that human beings disrupt it. In fact, humans want to somehow alter God’s tradition, whereas God’s tradition is unalterable. Sohrab does not say: what should we do, but rather says what we should not do. Sohrab Sepehri, in the poem “Water”—which, in the author’s view, is entirely about the principles and process of life—considers the source of water, or life itself, to be God, and that these principles have been placed within all human beings after birth. In Sohrab Sepehri’s poems, one can observe traces of three fundamental approaches regarding the meaning of life: naturalistic, non-naturalistic, and supernaturalistic. As Sohrab says in the poem “Water”: Let us not muddy the water; down below, perhaps, a pigeon is drinking water. Or in a distant grove, a finch is washing itself. Or in a village, a jug is being filled. Let us not muddy the water: perhaps this flowing water runs to the foot of a poplar, to wash away the sorrow of a heart. Perhaps a dervish’s hand has dipped dry bread into the water. A beautiful woman came to the river’s edge, her beautiful face is doubled. Let us not muddy the water: how pleasant this water! How clear this stream! (Hasht Ketab, Sohrab Sepehri, p. 346)
Sohrab believes that disrupting the rules and principles of the cosmic order has a negative impact on the lives of humans in future societies. If today’s humans muddy the path of the water—which is the very principles of life—(by adding social rules and regulations contrary to the principles of existence), the humans who come in the future will encounter problems, and one must not muddy the water because others want to make use of these principles of life. Sohrab sees the pigeon, the finch, and the jug as symbols of humans who seek to draw upon and use these principles of life. The pleasure, passion, and joy that humans derive from these pure principles have been destroyed throughout history by social rules created by human hands. Humans have become so distant from these principles of existence—which are the water itself—or have muddied it so much that it has lost its properties and turned into a predicament, to the extent that this modern human builds a lie detector to discern whether another is lying or telling the truth; cunning, deceit, trickery, fraud, bribery, usury, and so on… have muddied this water.
Khayyam:
Hedonists believe that pleasure itself, as an end, is a convincing and sufficient explanation for human behavior, a view that has been propounded since the time of Plato and has had numerous adherents up to the present day. “The hedonist says that an individual plans for the future and chooses their path of progress one step after another if, and only if, they feel that the future will be more pleasant (or less unpleasant) for them. The hedonistic framework of judgment is astonishing because it possesses great flexibility and can accommodate any of the meaning systems within its generous boundaries. Activities such as creativity, love, altruism, self-sacrifice for a cause—all can be considered important because they ultimately have the capacity to produce pleasure. Even behavior aimed at pain, suffering, or self-denial can be hedonistic” (Irvin D. Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, p. 605). Robert Nozick imagines a machine that contained all pleasures and would induce the expected pleasure in the individual connected to it
The author believes that traces of hedonism can be observed in the thoughts and ideas of Omar Khayyam of Nishapur. Therefore, a number of Khayyam's quatrains will be presented in this connection, followed by an analysis to the best of the author's ability. When life draws to a close, what matter sweet or bitter— When the cup is full, what matter Baghdad or Balkh? Drink wine, for after you and me, the moon for many a cycle Will pass from last to first, from first to last. Rubaiyat of Khayyam, p. 106 Drink wine, for this is eternal life; This is your very harvest from the season of youth. In the time of roses and wine and drunken companions, Be happy for a moment, for this is life. Rubaiyat of Khayyam, p. 104 The good and evil that lie in human nature, The joy and sorrow that are in fate and destiny, Do not impute to the celestial sphere, for in reason's path, The sphere is a thousand times more helpless than you. Rubaiyat of Khayyam, p. 105 Wine-drinking and being joyful is my creed; Being free from infidelity and religion is my faith. I asked the bride of the age, "What is your dowry?" She replied, "Your joyful heart is my dowry." Rubaiyat of Khayyam, p. 104 Since truth and certainty are not within our grasp, One cannot sit all one's life in the hope of doubt. Come, let us not set the wine cup from our hand; In ignorance, what matter sober or drunk? Rubaiyat of Khayyam, p. 98 Oh, many a time we shall not be, and the world will be; Neither name nor trace of us will remain. Before this, we were not, and there was no flaw; After this, when we are not, it will be the same. Rubaiyat of Khayyam, p. 110 Considering the above verses, it can be said that Khayyam believes that since death prevents the continuation of good things and the enjoyment of life, therefore, a person must make use of this limited opportunity and give meaning to their life. He considers enjoyment a kind of goal and values it; consequently, he does not deem life futile and absurd, and the prescription he offers for humanity is joy, happiness, and intoxication. Such a life is worth living; in other words, a meaningful life is pleasurable, but true pleasure is attained when it has a moral origin and a sense of spiritual beauty comes to the seeker of meaning. Of course, the author believes it is unfair to characterize Khayyam as a hedonist, but considering the era in which Khayyam lived, it might be said that these poems were a reaction against the ascetics, as asceticism had become beloved in the hearts of people in the sixth century, and in the author's view, Khayyam composed these verses in a roguish manner. It should be noted that most philosophers, to some extent, question belief in the afterlife and say to think of this world, as we have no knowledge of the hereafter. Of course, passing judgment on this matter cannot be contained in this brief space and requires detailed scrutiny and extensive research.
Is Sisyphus's Life Meaningful?
Although for Sisyphus, every day holds the same task, the same rock, and the same mountain, the world around him is always changing. Even if this surrounding world is only the mountain. Even if this change is the blooming of a small flower beside one of the rocks on Sisyphus's usual path, or a butterfly landing on a flower, or watching the sunrise, which is never repetitive. In this case, Sisyphus can even be happy, only on the condition that he himself wants to be. It is we ourselves who make our lives beautiful or ugly, extraordinary or mundane. Sisyphus has been humiliated by the gods; he wants to overcome this humiliation, and on this basis, some consider Sisyphus's life meaningful, believing that Sisyphus has a goal, and that goal is to overcome this humiliation. Repetition is not a sign of meaninglessness, even if this repetition is mundane. If it is asked, for what purpose was the sentence decreed? It is meaningful in relation to the intention and purpose of the gods. This question arises: Did God create us with free will, or are we in a state of determinism? Can one find liberation from this determinism? If the gods are taken as a symbol of nature, and the routine of everyday things has changed, the course of humanity has changed. Human history shows that humanity's perspective has changed; humanity has become a part of nature and has transformed the view of the ancients.
Taylor offers two suggestions for making Sisyphus's life meaningful: 1- If Sisyphus were to carry the stones to the top of the hill and build a beautiful, lasting temple out of them, he could free his life from the endless futility to which it had been condemned. 2- If the gods were to implant within Sisyphus an instinct for the repetitive rolling of the stone, he would feel a sense of mission and meaning within himself for repeatedly rolling the stone from the summit, and would feel no weariness in his task.
In his first suggestion, Taylor attempts to view meaning from an objective perspective and seeks meaning in connection with something external to Sisyphus's being, considering the meaning of life as the purpose of life. However, in his second suggestion, he advises Sisyphus to seek the meaning of life within his own being (subjective interpretation). (Religion and the Meaning of Life in Analytic Philosophy, Mohammad Reza Bayat, pp. 88-89)
Of course, there are criticisms of Taylor's suggestions, including: if we consider the meaning of life to be solely a function of the inner desires of each individual and their positive outlook on life, how and by what criterion can we distinguish between valuable and non-valuable matters? The second criticism is that there is little difference between good and bad, right and wrong endeavors. (Ibid., p. 91)
Conclusion:
Dr. Amir Abbas Alizamani, in a collaborative workshop on "The Meaning of Life" at a meeting of professors at the Islamic Azad University of Hamadan, stated: For ordinary people, wealth, power, and pleasure are considered the three fundamental principles, and they face three problems in attaining them. Dr. Alizamani identified these three problems as the suffering of not attaining, the suffering of losing, and weariness and boredom. To escape these sufferings and overcome these problems, we must reach the source of meaning.
The source of meaning must possess characteristics such as being infinite, absolute, eternal, loving, and creative. He referred to God as a necessary condition for giving meaning to life and pointed out that not just any God can give meaning to life. Camus claims that there is a fundamental contradiction between what we want from the universe (whether it be meaning, order, or cause) and what we find in the universe (a formless chaos). We never find the meaning we seek within life itself, whether we discover the meaning of life through a sudden faith and by placing hope in a God who is beyond this world, or whether we conclude that life is meaningless.
According to the method of logotherapy, the meaning of life can be discovered in three ways:
1- By doing a valuable deed, 2- By experiencing a sublime value, 3- By enduring pain and suffering (Man's Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl, p. 168)
The role of the logotherapist is to broaden the patient's field of vision, so that meaning and values come within the patient's field of vision and conscious awareness. Existentialists consider human ideas to be nothing but human constructs, such that Sartre says in this regard: Man is the maker of himself and the designer of his own element and essence. In other words, man determines his own essence as it is and as it should become.
Richard Taylor believes that life has meaning only to the extent that it is creative. Returning to the thought experiment of Sisyphus, Taylor states that the best explanation for the lack of meaning in his life is that his existence is full of repetition and devoid of innovation. His life is meaningless because he does nothing original or beautiful. Therefore, it can be understood that art, including painting, music, poetry, etc., and even possibly scientific discovery, can be considered among the factors that give value to life. (Comparative Theology, The Meaning of Life from the Perspective of John Cottingham, Dr. Alizamani, p. 102)
Given that a meaningful life must possess characteristics such as being chosen, awareness of this choice, having moral dignity, and being success-oriented, Sisyphus's life is therefore meaningless because it lacks these components. (Ibid, p.104)
In answer to the question, are we not ourselves a Sisyphus? It must be said, no, we are not Sisyphus, because we have goals in life and life matters to us. Since human beings are innately God-worshipping, believe in immortality, and believe in a moral order, their lives are therefore purposeful, valuable, and significant, and such a person cannot have a futile and absurd life. It is fitting for modern man to believe that God flows and permeates his life, and to know that religion is like a sturdy tree in whose pleasant shade one should rest and enjoy, and from whose branches and leaves one should benefit; it is in this case that this pleasant tree can satisfy man, and the entirety of existence will become meaningful for him.
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References:
1- The Myth of Sisyphus, Albert Camus, translated by Dr. Mahmoud Soltanieh, Jami Publications, first edition, Tehran, 1384.
2- Man's Search for Meaning, Dr. Viktor Frankl, translated by Dr. Nahzat Salehian and Mahin Milani, Dorsa Publications, Tehran, 1385.
3- Comparative Literature, Dr. Alireza Sheikhi, Payam Noor Publications, Tehran, 1387.
4- Religion and the Meaning of Life in Analytic Philosophy, Mohammad Reza Bayat, University of Religions and Denominations Publications, Tehran, 1390.
5- Existential Psychotherapy, Dr. Irvin D. Yalom, translated by Dr. Sepideh Habib, Ney Publishing, Tehran, 1390.
6- The Rubaiyat of Khayyam, edited by Mohammad Ali Foroughi and Ghasem Ghani, fourth edition, Forough Publishing, Tehran, 1367.
7- Shargh Newspaper, article "Meaningfulness to Meaninglessness," issue 714, 15 Esfand 1384.
8- Contemporary European Philosophy, I. M. Bochenski, translated by Dr. Sharaf al-Din Khorasani, second edition, Scientific and Cultural Publications, 1379.
9- Heidegger's Philosophy, Maurice Corvez, translated by Dr. Mahmoud Navali, Hekmat Publications, first edition, Tehran, 1378.
10- Golestan of Saadi, edited by Mohammad Ali Foroughi, Amir Kabir, Tehran, 1361.
11- Journal of Comparative Theology, article "The Meaning of Life from the Perspective of John Cottingham," Dr. Amir Abbas Alizamani, first year, first issue, Spring 1389.
12- Eight Books, Sohrab Sepehri, Tahouri Publications, Tehran, 1385.
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A piece by Farshad Aliyari | The Myth of Sisyphus and the Meaning of Life
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Source: Borujerd Times News Site
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Conclusion:
Dr. Amir Abbas Alizamani, in a collaborative workshop on "The Meaning of Life" at a meeting of professors of the Islamic Azad University of Hamedan, states: For ordinary human beings, wealth, power, and pleasure are considered three fundamental principles, in the pursuit of which they face three problems. Dr. Alizamani identified these three problems as the suffering of not attaining, of losing, and of weariness and reproach, and to be liberated from these sufferings and to overcome these problems, we must reach the source of meaning. The source of meaning must possess characteristics such as being infinite, absolute, eternal, loving, and creative. He then referred to God as a necessary condition for giving meaning to life and pointed out that not just any god can give meaning to life. Camus claims that there is a fundamental contradiction between what we want from the universe (be it concept, order, or cause) and what we find in the universe (a chaotic disorder). We never find the meaning we are searching for in life itself, whether we discover the concept of life through a sudden faith and by placing hope in a God who is beyond this world, or whether we conclude that life is meaningless. According to the method of logotherapy, the meaning of life can be discovered in three ways: 1- By doing a valuable deed, 2- By experiencing a sublime value, 3- By enduring pain and suffering (Man's Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl, p. 168). The role of the logotherapist is to broaden the patient's field of vision, so that meaning and values fall within the patient's field of vision and conscious awareness. Existentialists consider human ideas to be nothing but his own creations, such that Sartre says in this regard: Man is the maker of himself and the designer of his own element and essence. In other words, man determines his own essence as it is and as it ought to be. Richard Taylor believes that life has meaning only to the extent that it is creative. Taylor, returning to the thought experiment of Sisyphus, states that the best explanation for the lack of meaning in his life is that his existence is full of repetition and devoid of innovation. His life is meaningless because he does nothing original or beautiful. Therefore, it can be understood that art, including painting, music, poetry, etc., and even possibly scientific discovery, can be considered among the factors that give value to life. (Comparative Theology, The Meaning of Life from the Perspective of John Cottingham, Dr. Alizamani, p. 102). Considering that a meaningful life must possess characteristics such as being chosen, this choice being conscious, having moral dignity, and being success-oriented, Sisyphus's life is therefore meaningless because it lacks these components. (Ibid, p. 104). In answer to the question, "Are we not ourselves a Sisyphus?" it must be said: No, we are not Sisyphus, because we have goals in life and life matters to us. Since human beings are innately God-worshipping, believe in immortality, and believe in a moral system, their lives are therefore purposeful, valuable, and significant, and such a person cannot have a futile and absurd life. It is befitting for modern man to hold the belief that God flows and permeates his life, and to know that religion is like a sturdy tree in whose pleasant shade one should rest and enjoy, and from whose branches and leaves one should benefit. It is in this case that this pleasant tree can satisfy man, and the entirety of existence will become meaningful for him...
References:
1- The Myth of Sisyphus, Albert Camus, translated by Dr. Mahmoud Soltanieh, Jami Publications, first edition, Tehran, 1384.
2- Man's Search for Meaning, Dr. Viktor Frankl, translated by Dr. Nahzat Salehian and Mahin Milani, Dorsa Publications, Tehran, 1385.
3- Comparative Literature, Dr. Alireza Sheikhi, Payam Noor Publications, Tehran, 1387.
4- Religion and the Meaning of Life in Analytic Philosophy, Mohammad Reza Bayat, University of Religions and Denominations Publications, Tehran, 1390.
5- Existential Psychotherapy, Dr. Irvin D. Yalom, translated by Dr. Sepideh Habib, Ney Publishing, Tehran, 1390.
6- The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, edited by Mohammad Ali Foroughi and Ghasem Ghani, fourth edition, Forough Publishing, Tehran, 1367.
7- Shargh Newspaper, article "Meaningfulness to Meaninglessness," issue 714, 15 Esfand 1384.
8- Contemporary European Philosophy, I. M. Bochenski, translated by Dr. Sharaf al-Din Khorasani, second edition, Scientific and Cultural Publications, 1379.
9- The Philosophy of Heidegger, Maurice Corvez, translated by Dr. Mahmoud Navali, Hekmat Publications, first edition, Tehran, 1378.
10- Golestan of Saadi, edited by Mohammad Ali Foroughi, Amir Kabir, Tehran, 1361.
11- Journal of Comparative Theology, article "The Meaning of Life from the Perspective of John Cottingham," Dr. Amir Abbas Alizamani, Year 1, Issue 1, Spring 1389.
12- Eight Books, Sohrab Sepehri, Tahouri Publications, Tehran, 1385.
.A piece by Farshad Aliyari | The Myth of Sisyphus and the Meaning of Life
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Source: Borujerd Times News Site
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Discussion2 comments
همینطور در مورد "هادس" که "هاوس" ضبط شده!
سلام! من امروز که ١۴ شهریور ٩٥ هست دارم این مطلب رو می خونم, شاید پیشتر گفته باشن به شما... کلمه ی "تا ناقوس" -دقیقا با فاصله بین تا و ناقوس- (مرگ)، بدون شک همون "تاناتوس" هست که فروید هم ازش به عنوان غریزه ی مرگ در اصطلاحات ویژه ی خودش استفاده کرده... همون خدای اسطوره ای مرگ در اساطیر یونانی... ای کاش چنین اشتباهاتی تو سایتی با این دقت و اعتبار علمی وارد نشه با وسواس بیشتری به خرج دادن!